Sohei: Buddhist Warrior Monks of Japan
The above represents a belligerent monk of the Kamakura epoch. The Buddhists of those days had quite an army of fighting priests to protect their rights, or maintain their ground against rival creeds. He wears his clerical robes over his armor, and his head is covered with the sacred Kesa.
When looking at Buddhism, it's hard to imagine a sect of individuals who follow Buddhist teachings engaging in violence and committing acts of murder because of political or religious disputes among various Buddhist schools in one nation. Buddhism's core teachings are being nonviolent and passive, following the eightfold path toward enlightenment, and breaking away from attachments that lead to suffering. Another essential core teaching is helping one another toward spiritual enlightenment. With these in mind and many others, it's difficult to imagine a seeming pacifist Buddhist fighting Buddhists. However, some individuals fought and died for their beliefs. Much like the Knights Templar and the Teutonic Order, these individuals held significant power in their country of origin, Japan, gaining political and military strength by aiding powerful families and clans during centuries of civil war. They were the Sohei, the Warrior Buddhist Monks of Japan.
To understand the history of the Sohei, one must travel back to the 700s when the first major Sohei temples were founded. During this era, there were three major Sohei temples in Japan. These were the Kofuku-ji, Enryaku-ji, and the Mii-dera. These three powerful temples fought each other for centuries over imperial appointments and temple positions. It was said that these monasteries maintained small armies of private warriors to protect their assets and promote their interests.
The reason was that these monasteries secured large amounts of land, becoming powerful landowners. Having acquired land and wealth, they soon immersed themselves in politics and tried to seize even more power. Thus, the powerful temples created the warrior monks to help protect the temple's interests and combat any rivals that would hinder the social standings of the temple. During the late 700s, the most privileged and distinguished temple in Japan was the newly created Enryaku-ji on Mount Heidi, run by Abbot Saicho. The monks built the temple six years before the Japanese monarchy moved to Kyoto in 794. According to the book Japanese Warrior Monks AD 949-1603, "Enrayaku soon became involved in the performance of numerous sacred rituals connected with the imperial court, and it wasn't long until it achieved recognition as the temple of pacification and protector of the state" (Turnbull, Stephen 8). Soon the temple gained considerable wealth and could work outside the influence of the Order of Monastic Affairs, a government position that monitored Buddhism in the country. They made their sect of Buddhism known as the Tendai sect, which catered to the personal needs of the nobility. By the 11th century, the temple had more than 3,000 buildings and became the wealthiest temple in Japan. However, with this newfound fame came some challenges which often conflicted with rival temples. For example, the emperor had the right to appoint the next abbot. This caused most of the inner battles between the temples. This one problem, among other issues, would bring about 600 years of violence between the temples in Japan and play a role in the unification of Japan.
By the middle of the 10th century, the disputes over senior appointments led to brawling in the streets and using weapons. Interestingly, these inter-temple disputes were not seen as "religious wars" as people have seen in the West. Instead, these battles and disputes were fought over politics, not religious dogma or creed. Between the 10th and 14th centuries, the main temple rivalries were between the temples in Nara and Mount Heidi. By the 12th century, the age of civil war in Japan, many clans were eager to recruit different Sohei armies because they learned their craft by fighting other Sohei for many years. The first major conflict between monks of other temples, which led to violence, was in 949. It is stated that "56 monks from Nara Todaji gathered at the residence of an official in Kyoto to protest against an appointment that had displeased them" (9). In the ensuing brawl, some participants were killed. This would be the first of many violent confrontations between monks of other temples and would only worsen over the years. The introduction of new temples being built and two subsequent major civil wars would see various Sohei armies taking sides with other clans to gain potential political alliances and more influence over the country itself. Yet as time passed and the wars died down, the era of the monks entered a time of physical and mental rebuilding. Soon the monks played very few roles in Japan's civil wars and spent most of their time focusing on their interests and working on ways to spread their influence over the nation. However, this temporary truce wouldn't last, as by the late 1100s, the monks would return to the world of politics and violence and fight for control of interests and political power.
By 1185, the influence and militancy of Enryakuji had returned. Their prestige was too great to be subdued for long. With that in mind, the old rivalries between Enryakuji and Nara and the new temple Mii-dera began again. However, while Nara moved past the ways of the Sohei, Enryakuji remained the same. For instance, by the 1280s, the temple owned most of the Sake breweries and moneylenders in Kyoto. As well as enjoying a source of income, the temple provided protection and was willing to put pressure on reluctant debtors. As time passed, many in the Japanese monarchy no longer viewed the monks on Mount Heidi as the protector of the state. The monarchy instead gave that title to a new sect of Buddhism that was rising in the ranks of Japanese medieval society. This new form of Buddhism was known as Zen, and soon a new rivalry would emerge, one that would shake the foundations of Japanese culture. To fully understand this rivalry, one must examine the history of Zen in Japan during the 14th century.
According to Paul Lagasse of Columbia University, "Two main schools of Zen, the Lin-chi (Jap. Rinzai) and the Ts'ao-tung (Jap. Soto), flourished and were transmitted to Japan in the 14th century. Zen's austere discipline and practical approach made it the Buddhism of the medieval Japanese military class. Zen monks occupied positions of political influence and became active in literary and artistic life. Zen monasteries, especially the main temples of Kyoto and Kamakura, were educational and religious centers" (Zen Buddhism). Based on this information, the Enryakuji felt threatened by this new sect of Buddhism.
To make matters worse for the monks on Mount Heidi, even the shogun favored this form of Buddhism above other sects. This ruined the monks who had hoped to convert the royal family to their format of Buddhism. Because of Zen's interference, the monks on Mount Heidi started revolting and had more public brawls than ever. For the next 100 years, the Sohei would fight on the battlefield and in the war room, but it was only a matter before their legacy ended. These warrior monks would make their last stand in what would decide the fate of Japan and the survival of the monks, the Sengoku wars.
The Sengoku wars were Japan's last civil wars, ultimately deciding who would rule the nation. During that era, there were three potential leaders: Oda Nobunaga, Hideyoshi Toyotomi, and Ieyasu Tokugawa. During his campaigns, Oda not only fought the warrior monks but exterminated them as well. He viewed them as a threat to his military might, and during the late 1500s, he went on a warpath exterminating all the temples that housed warrior monks, starting with the monks on Mount Heidi. Not only did the monks have to deal with Oda, but also the Zen Buddhist sect, the Lotus sect, and a new breed of warrior monks from the Shinshu sect known as the Ikko-Ikki. The Ikko-Ikki was a league of Buddhist fanatics willing to die for their beliefs. They were predominately made up of peasants. Though they had no previous military experience, their fanatical devotion and enthusiasm for military training made them the first monk army to best the samurai in combat. Throughout the Sengoku wars, the monk played critical roles in battles such as Azukizaka in 1564 and Nagashima in 1574. The Sohei won some significant battles but could never win the war. Ultimately, the monks would make their last stand in the late 1580s. It was in the year 1583 that the last few surviving warrior monks allied themselves with either Ieyasu or Hideyoshi to decide the fate of Japan. Not wanting to be erased from history, the monks fought bravely and with honor. Like the Knights Templar and the Teutonic Order, the warrior monks left an everlasting impression on the face of their country. Once the wars were over, there were no more warrior monks left. The temples that survived the wars were reconstructed and turned into complete Buddhist temples. The few remaining warrior monks were enlisted in Tokugawa's army or conformed to the authentic lifestyle of a Buddhist monk. Because of generosity, the temples lasted into the modern world but never raised a monk army again.
In summary, the Sohei played a crucial role in medieval and feudal Japan and left their impression on Japan for centuries. Though only partially ordained Buddhist monks initially, they could fully experience the proper understanding of the religion they had fought and quarreled over for centuries. Despite their violent past, the temples that housed these proud warriors were now able to spread the teachings of Buddha not with violence but with passion.
Sources:
Military Costumes in Old Japan, Photographed by K. Ogawa, Under the Direction of Chitora Kawasaki of Ko-yu-kai (Tokyo Fine Art School), Tokyo, K. Ogawa, 1895 (Meiji 28)
“Zen Buddhism | the Columbia Encyclopedia - Credo Reference.” n.d. Search.credoreference.com. Accessed April 30, 2023. http://search.credoreference.com/content/entry/columency/zen_buddhism/0.%20Accessed%2003%20May%202017
Adolphson, Mikael S. 2007. The Teeth and Claws of the Buddha. University of Hawaii Press.
Turnbull, Stephen R, and Wayne Reynolds. 2004. Japanese Warrior Monks AD 949-1603. Oxford: Osprey.
