Napoleon: How he exerted control over the Empire beyond France’s borders
By 1812, France exerted control either directly, or with the use of client kingdoms over most of Europe. It held 130 'departments' and ruled over a population of 44 million people. There were a combination of factors that allowed Napoleon to establish nearly unlimited control in the states of Europe. Some arguments have focused on the significance on Napoleons military significance as the reason for his power, though there were other factors as well. The differentiating ways are constituted, first of his military exploits, second, domestically, focusing on the Civil Code issued in 1804, Code Napoleon and the new constitutions and institutions exported to the conquered states. Thirdly, what diplomacy achieved. Fourth, the economy. These combined factors, ensured that the “Europe of Napoleon, devised in conjunction with his brilliant minister of foreign affairs Talleyrand, was to ensure the hegemony of France.”
To begin then, the campaign of 1805-06, (during in the third coalition) is the prime example of how Napoleons achieved military domination. Beginning with the threat of Austrian and Russian armies, Napoleon demonstrated unusual speed in reaching the border of Germany in order to make battle, in fact “In September-October 1805 several corps marched up to 300 kilometres in ten days.” The battles of Ulm on the 21st October utterly destroyed the Austrian Army, and the battle of Austerlitz on the 2nd December broke the Russian army, killing 11,000 Russians, 4,000 Austrians and taking 12,000 prisoners, compared to a total of 9,000 French casualties. Such heavy casualties broke the Austrians and Russians desire to continue the war. Prussia, having previously allied with France found itself irritated with the dictatorial actions Napoleon following the treaty of pressburg with Austria, declared war on France in October 1806. Prussia, whose army was renowned as the greatest in Europe since the time of Frederick the Great, was annihilated at the battle of Jena-Auerstadt on the 14th October, shortly after Prussia declared war, and Napoleon had immediately invaded. By the 24th October, Berlin (the capital of Prussia) had been captured as well, which is testament to how quickly Napoleon was able to move his army and his charismatic command which led the Grande Armee to many victories. By definition, this meant Napoleons army had become the best in Europe, and given it an aura of invincibility by its continual success defeating the Austrians in later years. Having examined Napoleons maxims of war, historians can certainly make the case that he knew what to imbue his army with in order to achieve these extraordinary feats, for example Maxim LVI states: “A love of country, a spirit of enthusiasm, a sense of national honour, and fanaticism will operate upon young soldiers with advantage.” The inference being with all military propaganda being selected by himself, he could motivate soldiers to hardier feats which in turn led to more victories in the field, thus further domination. For Napoleon, war was essential in placating the people of France who did not “wish to be soldiers themselves, but Napoleons army, so long as it fought in other countries and there gained glory and victories, remained highly interesting to them.” Keeping armies in the field and staying at war, was just as much suppressing power over the vanquished nations who believed Napoleon was invincible just as much as providing legitimacy for his reign. Military power did not just stop at conquest as Spain was to discover in May 1808, following an uprising in Madrid which was brutally suppressed. Consequently the French were forced to attempt to try and pacify all of Spain where the provincial Spanish took the uprising as a spark for them to rise up; beginning the protracted peninsular war that would tie down 500,000 French soldiers until 1813.
Napoleon also aggressively used Diplomacy to expand his dominion over Europe. Early into his reign however, diplomacy was far more peaceful, particularly with the Papal States when concluding the concordat. From ‘the reasons Napoleon made himself Emperor’ historians can infer that perhaps the reason for this was to entice the Pope “to give the French a striking proof of his paternal affection” and “consented to officiate”at Napoleons coronation, which is evidence of how Napoleons foreign policy changed depending on his military and security needs. Wherever heads of states created problems for Napoleon, they were ruthlessly crushed. For example, his policy with the Papal States completely changed when encountering difficulties in May 1809; Pope Pius VII was simply taken prisoner. Napoleon didn’t just use diplomacy to ensure his demands, which the treaty of Tilsit on the 27th October 1907 testifies too. As the treaty gave Eastern Europe to the sphere of the Tsar, the west to Napoleon and joined Russia in Alliance with France, Napoleon was much more modest and graceful in terms dealing with the Tsar, whom he felt was his equal. Another example of dealing gracefully with his allies is the treaty of Fontainebleau on the 27th October 1807 where Napoleon initially divided Portugal between himself and Charles IV of Spain. Napoleon also used diplomacy to cement the peace between Austria and France, marrying Marie Louise on the 2nd April 1809. Napoleons support for other countries fluctuated circumstantially. For example when it was expedient to work with the Ottoman Empire, Napoleon helped to re-organise the Ottoman Army, yet later turned towards an alliance with Russia. On the other hand, he also used it to destabilise Austria’s hold over Hungary, issuing a manifesto on the May 15th 1809 to rise up and establish their independence, and prior to creating the grand duchy of Warsaw promised “the poles their national restoration enlisting a polish contingent of 30,000”.The most prominent sign of Napoleons control however was being able to declare that the Holy Roman Empire was over, and replaced it with the confederation of the Rhine on the 12th July 1806, which included some 18 princes on the western side of Germany. “Most of its members, the old hereditary rulers, were nominally independent, but a few, owing their promotion too Napoleon, also owed him a more direct allegiance.”
The French Empire at its height in 1812
Control was further expanded the systematic overhaul of conquered territories and subservient states under The Civil Code and Code Napoleon. The Civil code, replaced feudal laws with more modern enlightened laws from the revolutionary period, which demonstrates that though Napoleon ruled the French Empire autocratically, he was mindful of the revolution and the personal freedoms; chiefly freedom of worship and progression based on merit. This also meant uprisings were far less likely, demonstrated by how Belgium, the Rhineland, Geneva and the Piedmontese and Ligurian provinces of Italy. Here the Napoleonic system had been almost uniformly applied {…} Such People, in fact, never showed any open inclination to shake off the Napoleonic Yoke.” The University of France was established on the 10th may 1806 and was entrusted exclusively with teaching and education throughout the empire, which in turn shows Napoleon acknowledged the achievements of the Revolution. When sending “Jerome his new constitution for the kingdom of Westphalia in November 1807, he writes: “’What German opinion impatiently demands is that men of no rank, but of marked ability, shall have an equal claim upon your favour and your employment; and that every trace of serfdom, or of a feudal hierarchy between the sovereign and the lowest class of his subjects, shall be done away with.” By combining these reforms with “the building of roads and canals, single customs areas, unified systems of justice and weights and measures, economy in government expenditure, the institution of national armies, written constitutions, the secularization of church property and dissolution of monasteries” Napoleon and his familial rulers who governed countries on his behalf, could go beyond that and ensure the compliance, even happiness of the departments. “Reforms of a different order included the concordat, which did admirable service in winning supporters and neutralizing opponents in Catholic Belgium, Naples, and Southern and Western Germany” showing how he tended to his empires practical and spiritual needs. “To joseph, King of Naples, he writes: ‘you must establish the civil code… It will fortify your power, since by all entails are cancelled, and there will be no longer any great estates apart from those you create yourself.’” That Napoleon took time to ensure his bureaucracy was loyal and ensuring the repression of the provinces is evident in the establishment of a fully developed police force, under Fouche, Minister of Police. Fouche was also responsible for a secret police that was as active abroad as it was in France. Similar trust was placed in non-French officials, for example “The Milanese Bourgeoisie and officials […] were among the Empire’s most loyal supporters” and, predictably, more loyal subjects and the impact of Napoleon on political and social structure were “greater in territories that were annexed than in satellite states.” This was not the same everywhere as we can surmise from Italy, a project of Cultural Imperialism was tried, the French seeking “to replace the visual and the musical with the written and spoken word throughout the departments” in Italy. However, due to the longstanding cultural traditions in Italy it was never truly successful. What was successful in all departments was the institution and “commitment to holding elections in all parts of the formal empire […] a consequence of the mind-set and political imagination of the imperialists at the centre as of their anticipated effects on subject populations.”
To Economic matters, the Berlin Decree on the 21st November 1806 declared the continental blockade of Britain, which is testament of the control Napoleon held over the European states. This was not universally accepted however, Portugal had not complied with Napoleons demands and so in August 1807 Napoleon ordered Portugal to comply with the blockade or face his army, another example of threatening diplomacy is in further decrees at Fontainebleau and Milan threatening that all “neutral shipping obeying the orders in council with seizure in port or on the high seas as British property” Though Napoleon was able to enforce the blockade by invading Portugal and seizing shipping, eventually the blockade began to crumble, when it did “even Holland, under the Emperor’s brother Louis remained open to British Manufacturers until 1810” where upon Holland was directly annexed. Through diplomacy, France also managed to ensure that a large proportion of the army’s costs continued to come from abroad, by imposing indemnities on occupied countries and satellite states. Napoleon himself, placed astronomical contributions on countries to begin with and lowered it in proportion as the vanquished saw sense, the Austrians in 1809 came to terms quickly, so the initial 200 million francs demanded was reduced to 85 million. This however is still evidence of how Napoleon managed to improve the economy of France and the empire by keeping it on a war footing. In fact, a general report by Daru on the administration of the Grand Army and conquered territories during Prussia and Poland stipulated that there was a net profit of 359 million francs, (after expenses) for the treasury.
Conclusively, it is realistic to say that “France owned, managed or dominated continental Europe from the Pyrenees to the Russian frontier, from Denmark down to Naples.” It is at times hard to separate the issues of the Military from resource extraction, domestic, diplomatic and economic policy; due to how dependant it was on indemnities accrued from the success of the army and follow up negotiations, which in turn created revenue for the French empire. Napoleon presided over many aspects of his subjects lives, solidifying rule familiarly or through his marshals. Propaganda, Civil and political freedoms, financial and military security, gave virtually unlimited control to Napoleon, with the Empire only actually crumbling and ceasing to function when the allied coalition armies marched closer to Paris.
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